Urine Drug Testing

Types of Drug Testing Kits

Detox For Less — Mon, 03 Jul 2006 01:15:00 +0000

Types of Drug Testing Kits
By Damian Sofsian

Employers have been administering drug tests with increasing frequency in the last 20 years or so, for a number of reasons. These include safety, trustworthiness with sensitive information, and health/ insurance costs. Some privacy advocates have protested these policies, especially when they occur randomly rather than due to reasonable suspicion, but employers have found the benefits to be substantial.

Rather than send potential employees (or employees chosen for random testing) to a clinical laboratory, some employers have begun performing their own on-site drug testing. Benefits of on-site drug testing include cost, convenience and accuracy.

The most commonly used method in on-site drug testing is the oral swab. Employers like this method because it costs only about $1.00 for each test. This is a huge amount of savings compared to urine or other lab tests. Additionally, obtaining a sample for testing via oral testing is significantly less embarrassing for employees than obtaining a urine sample. Oral testing is also fast. Instead of waiting 24 to 48 hours for results, an on-site drug test of this kind produces results in only about ten minutes. With an accuracy rate of about 98%, many employers are turning to this quick and cost-effective way to screen their staff.

Other employers prefer the continued use of urine samples. One product used for on-site urine testing is a urine dipstick. By collecting the urine sample in the provided cup, a human resources officer can test the urine for the presence of drugs for up to eight hours. These specially designed cups keep the urine at room temperature for several hours, ensuring a fresh sample.

Cost and convenience are also reasons for on-site drug testing. This may be especially important to small businesses with limited resources. By eliminating potential drug abusers and saving on costs from testing, employers are finding on-site drug testing to be a pleasant alternative to traditional means.

Drug Testing Info provides detailed information about employee, random, high school, hair, and urine drug testing and drug testing kits. Drug Testing Info is the sister site of Prescription Drugs Addiction Web.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Damian_Sofsian

Urine Drug Testing: An Overview

Detox For Less — Mon, 03 Jul 2006 01:13:00 +0000

Urine Drug Testing: An Overview
By Damian Sofsian

The oldest and most commonly used method of drug testing is the urine drug test. Urine drug testing is usually the most inexpensive and quickest method of screening for drug use. Some benefits of urine drug testing are that the tests are minimally invasive and safe. Results are often returned within 24-48 hours and many employers appreciate the quick turnaround time.

With dozens of testing labs in every city, convenience is often a factor in choosing urine tests. Testing centers are usually near to the particular company and the visits are often short. The prospective employee just needs to sign in and sign a few releases and then urinate in a cup. In most cases, the employee is able to partially close the restroom door in order to maintain some privacy. Since many urine tests can detect masking agents, the need to urinate in full company is virtually eliminated. The entire process usually only lasts 20 minutes and employers can have the results within hours.

Although urine drug testing is the most common of pre-employment drug screenings, many creative scientists have developed tools to beat these tests. A vast array of products are easily obtainable online and in specialty shops. Some cases have even been reported of people purchasing urine from a “clean” associate and using the clean urine in their own drug test. The clean urine is stored in a thin plastic bag, boiled, strapped to the leg and passed as urine.

With drug testing laboratories beginning to test for masking agents, synthetic urine was developed. The urine often comes in powder form but may also come in liquid, ready-to-use form. The powder is mixed with water and comes with a container with a thermometer attached. The temperature is guaranteed to stay fresh for up to a few hours. This synthetic urine contains all of the properties in which a lab tests. Certain body temperatures and chemicals that are normally present in human urine are detected and it can be very convincing.

Although urine drug testing is easily accessible, minimally invasive and relatively inexpensive, many employers understand that it is also the easiest to evade. Because of the variety of methods used to cheat on urine tests, many employers decide to utilize sweat, saliva or hair follicle drug testing in its place. These other methods may not be as convenient or inexpensive, but are generally more reliable.

Drug Testing Info provides detailed information about employee, random, high school, hair, and urine drug testing and drug testing kits. Drug Testing Info is the sister site of Prescription Drugs Addiction Web.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Damian_Sofsian

A Brief History of Drug Testing

Detox For Less — Mon, 03 Jul 2006 01:12:00 +0000

A Brief History of Drug Testing
By Damian Sofsian

Drug testing is a big business. With at least fifteen large U.S. corporations supplying laboratory testing, employees and others are only a few minutes’ drive from a testing facility. From employers who use drug testing as a pre-employment screening tool to parents who want to keep tabs on the well being of their teenagers, there are many groups that frequently use drug testing as a screening mechanism.

Since the mid-1980’s, drug testing has become more and more common. Probably the group that is tested most often is prospective employees. With strict workplace safety legislation and the fact that employees can use dangerous equipment or have access to sensitive information, employers want to be certain that their employees are not drug abusers. With a sample of urine, hair, blood or swab from the mouth, drug-testing laboratories can often product positive or negative results within 24 to 48 hours.

Recently, drug abuse testing has become increasingly common in professional athletics. With the controversies surrounding the use of steroids and other performance-enhancing drugs, athletes are under a great deal of scrutiny. The government has also stepped in, and has begun to implement stricter controls and more frequent screening of athletes. A positive result on a drug test can result in penalties such as fines, loss of game time, or complete dismissal from the team. It is safe to say that drug-abusing athletes are taking huge risks with their careers by abusing performance or other illegal drugs.

Opponents of drug testing argue that it violates a person’s rights to privacy. They hold that even if an employee is a recreational drug user, it does not necessarily follow that his or her work will be affected. With random drug testing gaining popularity in the workforce, one may literally be drawn out of a hat as the next one up for a drug screening. While states only loosely enforce drug-testing laws, opponents say that random drug testing can ruin a person’s life. Even recreational weekend usage may result in the loss of employment if the drug usage is determined with a drug test. Random drug testing is often argued to be testing without any probable cause.

Drug Testing Info provides detailed information about employee, random, high school, hair, and urine drug testing and drug testing kits. Drug Testing Info is the sister site of Prescription Drugs Addiction Web.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Damian_Sofsian

Why Companies Perform Random Drug Testing

Detox For Less — Mon, 03 Jul 2006 01:09:00 +0000

Why Companies Perform Random Drug Testing
By Damian Sofsian

Perhaps the most controversial of all drug screenings is the random drug test. Employers have the legal authority to request a random drug test, whether they have a reasonable suspicion or not. Many companies have implemented a policy of completely random drug testing. This practice can be likened to that of a lottery. If your name is selected then it is your turn for random drug testing; the employee may have little or no advance warning in these cases.

Employers often exercise their rights to administer random drug testing as a way to determine whether or not an employee is a drug user; drug use in the workplace is often blamed for absenteeism, health problems and on-the-job accidents. Although many companies already require pre-employment drug screenings, many claim that random drug testing is more effective at finding the drug users in their workforce. With a pre-employment drug screening, the employee often has at least a few hours of advance warning and therefore can attempt to take measures to “cheat” on the test. Many products are available to help users pass drug screenings; from synthetic urine to agents that mask the appearance of a particular drug, various methods exist for drug abusers to beat the tests.

Most of the random drug testing takes place in settings in which drug use can be hazardous to the well being of others. Factories and warehouses are two prime examples of places that often have random drug testing policies. Forklift drivers under the influence have often been the cause of serious, and occasionally fatal, accidents in the workplace. Drug abusers who work with other heavy machinery or on an assembly line run the risk of injury as well. Random drug testing can often produce quick and accurate results. Some employers have drug-testing kits available on-site, and a simple swab sample from the mouth can give an immediate positive or negative result.

Despite arguments against random drug testing, employers often stand firm on their decision to implement this policy. Whether there is probable cause or not, employers have the right to request drug screening at any time. It is in the employee’s best interest to abstain from drug use, whether on the job or not. Though privacy advocates suggest that random drug testing is a breach of an employee’s right to privacy, the simple fact remains that employers may choose this method if they deem necessary. The debate will likely continue well into the future.

Drug Testing Info provides detailed information about employee, random, high school, hair, and urine drug testing and drug testing kits. Drug Testing Info is the sister site of Prescription Drugs Addiction Web.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Damian_Sofsian

Drug Test Reliability

Detox For Less — Tue, 25 Apr 2006 08:30:00 +0000

A WORD ON TEST RELIABILITY

Published data indicate that a system of drug screening similar to that
used by most laboratories has a sensitivity of 76% and a specificity of
99%. This excellent specificity parameter means that of 100 persons who do
not use drugs, 99 would be expected to test negative by confirmation. This
is certainly an excellent specificity for any medical determination.
However, one should also be aware of another parameter, the predictive
value of a positive test. As applied to drug testing, this figure expresses
the probability that a subject that has tested positively has in fact used
the drug. Although a high specificity, such as 99%, optimizes the
predictive value, a more significant factor is the prevalence of drug use
in the population being tested. The more prevalent the usage of drugs in a
subject population, the greater the reliability of drug testing procedure.
Given the sensitivity and specificity values quoted above, the following
table indicates the predictive value for several levels of drug abuse
prevalence.

Percentage of tested population | Probability that a given

using drugs (the prevalence of | subject that tests positive

drug abuse) | has really taken the drug

| (the predictive value of a

| positive test)
______________________________________________________________________

0.1% | 7.1%
1.0% | 43.4%
10.0% | 89.4%
20.0% | 95.0%
50.0% | 98.7%

Therefore, in a population with a high incidence of drug use (200 per
thousand), the false positive rate on drug screens is only 5%, while in
a low-incidence population (1 per thousand) the false positive rate on
randomly screened individuals (i.e., those of whom there is no particular
suspicion of drug use) is expected to be a whopping 93%! For this reason,
it is my recommendation that drug screens not be applied on a random,
not-for-cause basis, except in situations where the prevalence of drug use
is known to be high (such as in substance abuse treatment programs).

Limitations of Drug Screens

Detox For Less — Tue, 25 Apr 2006 08:29:00 +0000

From a practical viewpoint it is impossible to determine in every case
that a given individual is impaired in the workplace due to drug abuse.
Just as in the case of alcohol, the use of drugs spans a wide spectrum of
behavior, from the occasional recreational user who assiduously avoids
coming to work under the influence, to the hard-core addict whose only
motivation is the acquisition of his or her next dose. Generally the
clinical laboratory is not able to distinguish these two types of
individuals. Such a distinction comes about only by careful evaluation by
professionals specially trained in the psychology and physiology of drug
abuse. The laboratory should be used only as a helpful tool for such
professionals.

Urine drug screens panels are set up to analyze urine for a variety of
drugs that are known to have high abuse potential and affect task
performance.
To rule out the presence of all drugs that may impair a worker's
performance is not generally allowable within the bounds of cost
containment. Certain drugs which are not usually picked up on routine drug
screens are noted below. If intoxication by any of the drugs listed below
is suspected, it is recommended that the client contact the B&A
pathologist, who will be glad to help determine a strategy as to how the
case should be most efficiently handled.

Methylphenidate (Ritalin), phentermine (Fastin, Parmine), phenmetrazine
(Preludin), phendimetrazine (Plegine), diethylpropion (Tenuate),
mazindol (Mazanor, Sanorex), benzphetamine (Didrex) and fenfluramine
(Pondimin) all have amphetamine-like effects and abuse potential. Some of
them, such as phentermine, benzphetamine, fenfluramine and diethylpropion,
may not be picked up on routine screens.

Methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA, "Ecstasy") is has been popular in
Houston high schools. Although it is technically an amphetamine, it
requires a special analysis to be identified.

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is also chemically related to the
amphetamines, but it is much better known for its profound
hallucinogenic effects. Special analysis is available.

Meperidine (Demerol) and pentazocine (Talwin) have physiological effects
and abuse potential essentially identical to those of opiates. However,
since they are chemically dissimilar to morphine, they may not show up as
"opiates" on a routine screen. Special analysis is available.

Barbiturates which are not easily detected on drug screens include
amobarbital (Amytal), pentobarbital (Nembutal), and butethal. The detection
systems used to pick up barbiturates are optimized for secobarbital
(Seconal), which is probably the most important barbiturate in abusing
populations.

Flurazepam (Dalmane), a benzodiazepine used as a sleeping pill, is not
ordinarily picked up on benzodiazepine screens.

Glutethimide (Doriden), ethchlorvynol (Placidyl), meprobamate (Miltown,
Equanil), methyprylon (Noludar), and ethinamate (Valmid) are sedative
drugs that can produce dependence and impaired function. Although they may
have some effects similar to those of the barbiturates, they are chemically
unrelated and must be detected with special procedures.

Hydrocarbon solvents. These are inhaled by glue sniffers to produce a
euphoric effect. Although this seems to be less of a problem socially now
than in previous years, special analysis of hydrocarbons and chlorinated
hydrocarbons is available.

Ketamine (Ketalar), chemically related to phencyclidine (PCP), is used
as a general anesthetic but has been abused, often by health care workers.
It must be injected for effect. Analysis is available only through
specialized laboratories, and turnaround time is typically long.

Designer opiates. These, like meperidine, are synthetic analogues of
natural opiates. Accordingly, their chemical structure may be so alien to
that of natural opiates that they go completely undetected. These are
medically very significant drugs. For instance, 3-methylfentanyl ("China
white") is 3000 times as potent as morphine and has been responsible for
over 100 overdose deaths in California. Another, 1-methyl-4-
phenylpropionoxypiperidine (MPPP), may be contaminated with an unintended
byproduct (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridine, or MPTP) which
destroys the substantia nigra of the brain and produces permanent
parkinsonism.

Adulteration of urine samples with such substances as lemon juice,
vinegar, chlorine bleach, and NaCl has been used to successfully interfere
with detection of cannabinoids. Also, marked overhydration of the subject
(by quaffing large volumes of water) may so dilute the urine that the
concentration of the telltale metabolite falls below the detection
threshold of the screen.

Alcohol Testing

Detox For Less — Tue, 25 Apr 2006 08:28:00 +0000

Examples: Beer, wine, distilled spirits

Medical uses: Rarely, if ever, used for medical purposes.

Effects attractive to abuser: Release of social inhibitions, euphoria,
sedation

Adverse effects: Same as that for barbiturates (see above). Also, use by
pregnant women, even in small ("social") amounts may have adverse effect
on the fetus.

How abused: Drunk in beverage

Period detectable after last dose: 8-10 hours

Note: Alcohol is the only drug of abuse (other than tobacco) that is
legal for all adults to use. Illegal use (as in driving while intoxicated)
is defined by the presence of a blood alcohol level of greater than 100
mg/dL (0.10% by volume) in Texas (lower in some other states). It is
impossible to determine if a subject is legally intoxicated by measurement
of the urine alcohol level.
A blood specimen must be collected for this determination to be made by
a clinical laboratory.

Propoxyphene Testing

Detox For Less — Tue, 25 Apr 2006 08:28:00 +0000

Examples: Darvon, Dolene, Doxaphene, Profene 65

Medical uses: Relief of mild to moderate pain.

Effects attractive to abuser: Same as that for opiates (see above)

Adverse effects: Same as that for opiates (see above).

How abused: Pills taken orally; occasionally injected as solution made
by dissolving pills in water.

Period detectable after last dose: 1-3 days

Note: Propoxyphene is technically an opiate and is chemically closely
related to methadone. As a pain-relieving drug, it is two-thirds as potent
as codeine. Although considered something of a minor leaguer in the opiate
world, it is nevertheless a cause of many drug-related deaths (including
that of former football star John Matuszak) especially if used in
combination with alcohol and other drugs.

Substances causing false positive results: Methadone (see above) at
high, toxic concentrations may cause false positive results. Confirmation
testing will eliminate interference by this drug.

Phencyclidine Testing

Detox For Less — Tue, 25 Apr 2006 08:27:00 +0000

Examples: PCP, "angel dust"

Medical uses: Veterinary tranquilizer; not used in human medicine.

Effects attractive to abuser: Hallucinogenic effects

Adverse effects: Lethargy, loss of co/rdination; unpredictable
psychosis, sometimes with criminally violent behavior; death.

How abused: Taken orally, smoked in cigarette (often mixed with
marijuana), injected intravenously as a solution, snorted into the nose in
granular form.

Typical urine detection cutoff level: 75 ng/mL

Period detectable after last dose: 5-10 days

Substances causing false positive results: Thioridazine (Mellaril), an
antipsychotic drug, has been reported to cause false positive results,
as has the insecticide parathion.

Methaqualone Testing

Detox For Less — Tue, 25 Apr 2006 08:26:00 +0000

Examples: Quaalude, Sopor

Medical uses: Once used as a sleeping pill/sedative, now methaqualone is
virtually never used for medical purposes.

Effects attractive to abuser: Same as that for barbiturates (see above)

Adverse effects: Same as that for barbiturates (see above)

How abused: Pills taken orally.

Typical urine detection cutoff level: 300 ng/mL

Period detectable after last dose: up to 90 hours, depending on dose

Substances causing false positive results: none reported.

Cocaine Testing

Detox For Less — Tue, 25 Apr 2006 08:25:00 +0000

Examples: Cocaine hydrochloride is the typical form used by abusers who
ingest the drug by snorting the granular form into the nose; it can also be
dissolved in water and injected intravenously. Cocaine base is available in
a waxy cake form ("rock" or "crack") which is vaporized with a torch and
the vapors inhaled through a tube.

Medical uses: Used almost exclusively by ear, nose and throat doctors to
produce local anesthesia and control blood loss during minor nasal
surgery.

Effects attractive to abuser: Euphoria, increased ability to
concentrate, increased alertness, heightened ability to perform
intellectual and physical tasks, sexual stimulation, heightened
sociability, enhanced self-confidence.

Adverse effects: Restlessness, nervousness, tremor, convulsions,
disturbances in heart rhythm, psychological dependence, myocardial
infarction, sudden death.

How abused: Snorted, injected, or smoked (see above).

Typical urine detection cutoff level: 300 ng/mL

Period detectable after last dose: 8-48 hours

Note: The laboratory detection of cocaine is performed by analyzing the
urine for the presence of benzoylecgonine, a substance produced by the
body's chemical detoxification of cocaine. Continuous conversion of cocaine
to the metabolite occurs in voided, standing urine specimens (even with
fluoridation and refrigeration) unless the specimen is kept at acid pH
(<5). This may give the appearance of a negative specimen "turning
positive" during storage, if the initial level of the metabolite was too
low to trigger the screen in the fresh specimen. In truth, the specimen was
positive all along, of course.

Substances causing false positive results: none reported; however, some
legal South American herbal teas may contain small amounts of coca leaf
extract, which may trigger a positive test in an "innocent" subject. Please
note that cocoa, cacao, and Coca Cola are all completely unrelated to coca,
which is the source of cocaine.

Cannabinoids Testing

Detox For Less — Tue, 25 Apr 2006 08:23:00 +0000

Examples: Marijuana, hashish, hash oil

Medical uses: Treatment of nausea and vomiting due to cancer chemotherapy.

Effects attractive to abuser: Euphoria, intensified sensual and
aesthetic perceptions.

Adverse effects: Paranoia, panic, impairment of memory and ability to
perform tasks, distorted perception of time, physical and psychological
dependence.

How abused: Smoked in cigarettes or pipe; occasionally eaten as
ingredient baked into confections.

Typical urine detection cutoff level: 100 ng/mL or 20 ng/mL (optional)

Period detectable after last dose: This is highly variable. A one joint
per week user has detectable levels of cannabinoids form 7 to 34 days,
while a heavy daily user may be detected from 6 to 81 days after last use.

Substances causing false positive results: none reported. A screen
detection cutoff level of 20 ng/mL, requested by some laboratory clients,
may produce false positives due to passive inhalation of marijuana smoke,
but this is controversial.

At the cutoff level of 100 ng/mL, persons exposed passively to the smoke
of others by virtue of being in the same room with abusers should be
negative on urine drug screen, although more sensitive chemical techniques
(such as gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, which has a sensitivity of
10 ng/mL) may demonstrate the drug in such an individual's urine.

Benzodiazepines Testing

Detox For Less — Tue, 25 Apr 2006 08:22:00 +0000

Examples: Diazepam (Valium), chlordiazepoxide (Librium), flurazepam
(Dalmane), oxazepam (Serax), lorazepam (Ativan), clonazepam (Clonopin).

Medical uses: Treatment of anxiety disorders, convulsions, and muscle
spasms.

Effects attractive to abuser: Euphoria, sedation, relief of anxiety,
induction of sleep.

Adverse effects: Drowsiness, apathy, fatigue, decreased activity level,
dizziness, fainting, impaired ability to concentrate on tasks,
disturbance of vision and hearing, physical addiction.

How abused: Pills taken orally.

Typical urine detection cutoff level: 300 ng/mL

Period detectable after last dose: around 2-4 days, but depending
greatly on dose. For instance, a single 10 mg PO dose of diazepam may not
ever be detected, but a 5 times daily dose of 10 mg will be detectable for
3-7 days.

Substances causing false positive results: none reported.

Opiates Testing

Detox For Less — Tue, 25 Apr 2006 08:21:00 +0000

Examples: Morphine, heroin, codeine (as found in many prescription cough
medicines, such as Robitussin-AC, and pain medications, such as Tylenol
#3, Phenaphen #3 & #4, Empirin #3 & #4), oxycodone (Percodan),
hydromorphone (Dilaudid), hydrocodone (as in many prescription cough
medicines).

Medical uses: Relief of moderate to severe pain, treatment of persistent
cough (codeine), treatment of diarrhea.

Effects attractive to abuser: Euphoria, sedation.

Adverse effects: Drowsiness, apathy, confusion, nausea, vomiting,
suppression of breathing reflexes, constricted pupils, physical addiction,
coma, death.

How abused: Pills taken orally; solution injected intravenously or
subcutaneously; occasionally snorted into the nose in granular form.

Typical urine detection cutoff level: 300 ng/mL

Period detectable after last dose: heroin, 1-4 days; meperidine, 4-24
hours; morphine, 84 hour minimum

Notes: This family of drugs undergoes extensive chemical changes due to
the normal detoxification processes of the body. Therefore, the drug
detected in the urine screen may not be the same as that originally taken
by the subject. For instance, both heroin and codeine are converted to
morphine before excretion in the urine.

Substances causing false positive results: none reported; however, foods
containing poppy seeds (the natural source of traditional opiate drugs)
will produce true positive results when screening the urine of an otherwise
innocent subject.

Methadone Testing

Detox For Less — Tue, 25 Apr 2006 08:20:00 +0000

Examples: Roxane, Dolophine

Medical uses: Treatment of opiate addicts in approved program

Effects attractive to abuser: Same as opiates (below)

Adverse effects: Same as opiates (below) but with lesser degree of physical
dependency (addiction)

How abused: Pills taken orally; solution injected intravenously.

Period detectable after last dose: 7.5-56 hours

Substances causing false positive results: doxylamine [Unisom Nighttime
Sleep Aid]. Presence of this substance would be ruled out by confirmatory
testing.